The Lived Experience of Couples with Attachment Trauma (Insecure Attachment) in Marital Relationships: A Phenomenological Research

Document Type : Research Paper

Authors

1 Department of counseling, Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences, University of Kurdistan, Sanandaj, Iran

2 Department of counseling, Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences, University of Kurdistan, Sanandaj, Iran.

3 Department of counseling, Faculty of Educational Sciences and Psychology, Shahid Chamran University of Ahvaz, Ahvaz, Iran.

Abstract

The aim of this study was to investigate the lived experiences of married couples who have undergone attachment trauma (insecure attachment). It employed a qualitative methodology, specifically utilizing interpretive phenomenology and the Van Mannen analytical method. All couples referred to counseling centers in Kermanshah in 2020 constituted the target population, and criterion-based purposive sampling was used to select the sample. The clients completed the Carver Measure of Attachment Qualities. Those who exhibited insecure attachment and were more likely to participate in the study were interviewed in a semi-structured format until saturation was reached. The final tally of participants was fourteen, comprised of eight females and six males. Data were collected, recorded, coded, and classified into main themes and sub-themes. The data were analyzed utilizing Van Manen’s method of theme analysis, which extracted themes in accordance with three distinct approaches—general, selective, and fragmentary. Thirty subthemes and five overarching themes are discerned through this analysis: disturbed communication patterns, the presence of mental disorders and emotional regulation difficulties, domestic violence and aggression, disrupted sexual relations, and troubled romantic and interpersonal relationships. The emotional dissolution of a married couple’s existence is the result of communication patterns that have been disrupted by attachment trauma. Therefore, it is imperative to implement training programs and conduct enrichment courses that are grounded in the adult’s attachment style in order to mitigate couple conflicts.
 

Keywords

References

بیرامی، م.، فهیمی، ص.، اکبری، ا.، و پیچاکلایی، ا. (1391). پیش‌بینی رضایت زناشویی براساس سبک‌های دلبستگی و مؤلفه‌های تمایزیافتگی. اصول بهداشت روانی. 14(53)، 77-66. https://doi.org/10.22038/jfmh.2012.935
جزینی، ش.، عبدالهی، ن.، امان‌الهی، ع.، و اصلانی، خ. (1397). تأثیر سبک دلبستگی و بدکارکردی جنسی بر تعهد زناشویی و باورهای جنسی در دانشجویان زن متأهل شهر اهواز: تجزیه و تحلیل مسیر. افق دانش. ۲5(۱)، 36-29. http://imtj.gmu.ac.ir/article-1-2782-fa.html
حسینی حسین‌آباد، س. ف.، غباری‌بناب، ب.، مشایخ، م.، سوداگر، ش.، و فرخی، ن. (1397). پیش‌بینی سازگاری زناشویی بر پایۀ سبک‌های دلبستگی. مجلۀ تحقیقات سلامت. 7(3)، 154-147. http://jhr.ssu.ac.ir/article-1-434-fa.html
خزاعی، س.، نوابی‌نژاد، ش.، فرزاد، و.، و زهراکار، ک. (1396). رابطۀ سبک‌های دلبستگی و پرخاشگری ارتباطی پنهان: با واسطه‌گری احساس شرم و گناه. روان‌شناسی تحولی. 14(54)، 172-155. https://jip.stb.iau.ir/article_539238.html
رجبی، غ. ر.، موسویان‌نژاد، خ.، و تقی‌پور، م. (1393). رابطۀ سبک‌های دلبستگی و هوش هیجانی با رضایت و تعارض زناشویی در معلمان زن متأهل. دوفصلنامۀ مشاوره کاربردی. 4(1)، 66-49. https://jac.scu.ac.ir/article_12562.html
سهرابی، ف.، و رسولی، ف. (1387). بررسی رابطۀ بین سبک دلبستگی و روابط جنسی فرازناشویی در بین زنان بازداشت‌شده در مرکز مبارزه با مفاسد اجتماعی شهر تهران. فصلنامۀ خانواده‌پژوهی. 4(2)، 143-133. https://jfr.sbu.ac.ir/article_95159.html
صداقت‌خواه، ع.، و بهزادی‌پور، س. (1396). پیش‌بینی کیفیت روابط زناشویی براساس باورها ارتباطی، ذهن‌آگاهی و انعطاف‌پذیری روان‌شناختی. فصلنامۀ زن و جامعه. 8(2)، 76-57. https://jzvj.marvdasht.iau.ir/article_2391.html
صدوقی، م. (1387). معیارهای ویژۀ ارزیابی پژوهش کیفی. روش‌شناسی علوم انسانی. 14(56)، 72-55.       https://method.rihu.ac.ir/article_428.html
عیسی‌نژاد، ا.، آگشته، م.، و علی‌پور، م. (1394). بررسی روایی و پایایی و ساختار عاملی فارسی پرسشنامۀ کیفیت دلبستگی بزرگسالان در همسرها-مفهوم‌سازی چندبعدی دلبستگی زناشویی. مشاوره و روان‌درمانی خانواده. 5(4)، 16-1.         https://dorl.net/dor/20.1001.1.22516654.1394.5.4.1.3
قاضیان، م.، بشارت، م. ع.، و رضازاده، س. م. ر. (1398). رابطۀ بین سبک‌های دلبستگی و سازگاری زوجین با توجه به نقش تعدیل‌کنندۀ مزاج عاطفی. پژوهش‌های کاربردی روان‌شناختی. 10(1)، 61-43. https://doi.org/10.22059/japr.2019.258348.642852
محمدپور، احمد (1398). روش تحقیق کیفی ضد روش (مراحل و رویه‌های عملی در روش‌شناسی کیفی). جلد دوم. تهران: جامعه­شناسان.
مدنی، م.، و بشارت، م. ع. (1398). بررسی ارتباط سبک‌های دلبستگی در بزرگسالان و مشکلات زناشویی. رویش روان‌شناسی. 8(4)، 148-141. http://dorl.net/dor/20.1001.1.2383353.1398.8.4.1.3
مطلب، ز.، و حمیدی‌پور، ر. (1396). رابطۀ سبک‌های دلبستگی و راهبردهای مقابله با استرس با سازگاری زناشویی. مجلۀ اصول بهداشت روانی. 19(3)، 255-251. https://doi.org/10.22038/jfmh.2017.8902
هدایتی، م.، و بیگی، س. (1395). تعیین رابطۀ بین سبک‌های دلبستگی و رضایتمندی زناشویی با شاخص عملکرد جنسی در زنان. پژوهشنامۀ زنان. 7(16)، 141-127. https://womenstudy.ihcs.ac.ir/article_2178.html
References
Abdollahi, N., Jazini, S., Aslani, K., & Amanelahi, A. (2020). The mediating role of automatic thoughts in relationship between attachment style with sexual dysfunction and marital commitment: A path analysis. Journal of Research and Health, 10(2), 91-102. http://dx.doi.org/10.32598/JRH.10.2.5
Adams, C., & Van Manen, M. A. (2017). Teaching phenomenological research and writing. Qualitative Health Research, 27(6), 780-791. https://doi.org/10.1177/1049732317698960
Aftyka, A., & Rozalska, I. (2020). Post-traumatic stress symptoms in a partner as an essential predictor for post-traumatic stress symptoms in the mothers and fathers of children previously treated in NICU. Journal of Neonatal Nursing, 26(5), 259-262. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jnn.2020.04.002
Banytė, K., & Pukinskaitė, R. (2010). The relationship between attachment styles, love attitudes and sensitivity to rejection among young adults. Social Inquiry into Well-Being, 9(2), 127-134. https://ojs.mruni.eu/ojs/social-inquiry-into-well-being/article/view/939
Bélanger, C., Mathieu, C., Dugal, C., & Courchesne, C. (2015). The impact of attach- ment on intimate partner violence perpetrated by women. Journal of Family Therapy, 43(5), 441-453. https://doi.org/10.1080/01926187.2015.1080130
Birami, M., Fahimi, S., Akbari, A., & Pichakalai, A. (2012). Predicting marital satisfaction on the basis of attachment styles and differentiation components. Journal of Fundamentals of Mental Health, 14(53), 66-77. https://doi.org/10.22038/jfmh.2012.935 (In Persian)
Birnbaum, G. E., & Reis, H. T. (2019). Evolved to be connected: The dynamics of attachment and sex over the course of romantic relationships. Current Opinion in Psychology, 25, 11-15. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.copsyc.2018.02.005
Bonache, H., Gonzalez-Mendez, R., & Krahé, B. (2019). Adult attachment styles, destructive conflict resolution, and the experience of intimate partner violence. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 34(2), 287-309. https://doi.org/10.1177/0886260516640776
Brandão, T., Matias, M., Ferreira, T., Vieira, J., Schulz, M. S., & Matos, P. M. (2020). Attachment, emotion regulation, and well‐being in couples: Intrapersonal and interpersonal associations. Journal of Personality, 88(4), 748-761. https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fjopy.12523
Brassard, A., Péloquin, K., Dupuy, E., Wright, J., & Shaver, P. R. (2012). Romantic attachment insecurity predicts sexual dissatisfaction in couples seeking marital therapy. Journal of Sex & Marital Therapy, 38(3), 245-262. https://doi.org/10.1080/0092623x.2011.606881
Bretherton, I. (2013). The origins of attachment theory: John Bowlby and Mary Ainsworth. In Attachment theory (pp. 45-84). Routledge.
Brophy, K., Brähler, E., Hinz, A., Schmidt, S., & Körner, A. (2020). The role of self-compassion in the relationship between attachment, depression, and quality of life. Journal of Affective Disorders, 260, 45-52. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jad.2019.08.066
Brumariu, L. E., & Kerns, K. A. (2010). Parent–child attachment and internalizing symptoms in childhood and adolescence: A review of empirical findings and future directions. Development and Psychopathology, 22(1), 177-203. https://doi.org/10.1017/s0954579409990344
Carver, C. S. (1997). Adult attachment and personality: Converging evidence and a new measure. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin. 23(8), 865-883. https://doi.org/10.1177/0146167297238007
Cascio, M. I., & Alaimo, S. M. (2016). The relationship between attachment styles, emotional dysregulation, & metacognitive functions in patients with personality disorders. Journal of Psychology & Psychotherapy, 6(3), 1-7. http://dx.doi.org/10.4172/2161-0487.1000265
Cheche Hoover, R., & Jackson, J. B. (2021). Insecure attachment, emotion dysregulation, and psychological aggression in couples. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 36(19-20), NP10908–NP10936. https://doi.org/10.1177/0886260519877939
Chung, M. S. (2014). Pathways between attachment and marital satisfaction: The mediating roles of rumination, empathy, and forgiveness. Personality and Individual Differences, 70, 246-251. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2014.06.032
Dagan, O., Facompré, C. R., & Bernard, K. (2018). Adult attachment representations and depressive symptoms: A meta-analysis. Journal of Affective Disorders, 236, 274-290. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jad.2018.04.091
Etcheverry, P. E., Le, B., WU, T. F., & Wei, M. (2013). Attachment and the investment model: Predictors of relationship commitment, maintenance, and persistence. Personal Relationships, 20(3), 546-567. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1475-6811.2012.01423.x
Fallah, M. Y., Talemi, A. N., Bagheri, M., Allameh, Y., Mazloumirad, M., Zandnia, F... & Ghahari, S. (2019). Attachment styles, marital conflicts, coping strategies, and sexual satisfaction in spouse abused and non-abused women. Journal of Pharmaceutical Research International, 26(4), 1-9. https://doi.org/10.9734/jpri/2019/v26i430141
Fernández-Fuertes, A. A., Fuertes, A., Fernández-Rouco, N., & Orgaz, B. (2019). Past aggressive behavior, costs and benefits of aggression, romantic attachment, and teen dating violence perpetration in Spain. Children and Youth Services Review, 100, 376-383. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.childyouth.2019.03.020
Fraley, R. C. (2019). Attachment in adulthood: Recent developments, emerging debates, and future directions. Annual Review of Psychology, 70, 401-422. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-psych-010418-102813
Ghazian, M., Besharat, M. A., & Rezazade, S. (2019). The Moderating Role of Affective Temperament on the Relationship between Attachment Styles and Dyadic Adjustment States. Journal of Applied Psychological Research, 10(1), 43-61. https://doi.org/10.22059/japr.2019.258348.642852 (In Persian)
Givertz, M., Woszidlo, A., Segrin, C., & Knutson, K. (2013). Direct and indirect effects of attachment orientation on relationship quality and loneliness in married couples. Journal of Social and Personal Relationships, 30(8), 1096-1120. https://doi.org/10.1177/0265407513482445
Gross, J. J. (2014). Emotion regulation: Conceptual and empirical foundations. In J. J. Gross (Ed.). Handbook of emotion regulation (pp. 3–22). New York: The Guilford Press.
Hedayati, M., & Begi, S. (2016). Determining the Relationship between Styles of Devotion and Espousal Satisfaction by the Index of Sexual Functioningof Women. Women Studies, 7(16), 127-141. https://womenstudy.ihcs.ac.ir/article_2178.html (In Persian)
Hicks, S. (2020). Romantic relational aggression among college students: A moderated mediation study of attachment style, romantic jealousy, mate value, and relationship investment. Psychology School, PhD Dissertation. University of Southern Mississippi. https://aquila.usm.edu/dissertations/1682/
Ho, M. Y., Chen, S. X., Bond, M. H., Hui, C. M., Chan, C., & Friedman, M. (2012). Linking adult attachment styles to relationship satisfaction in Hong Kong and the United States: The mediating role of personal and structural commitment. Journal of Happiness Studies, 13(3), 565-578. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10902-011-9279-1
Hosseini Hossein-Abad, S. F., Ghobari-Banab, B., Mashaikh, M., Sodagar, S., and Farrokhi, N. (2018). Prediction of marital compatibility based on attachment styles. Journal of Community Health Research, 7(3), 157-147. http://jhr.ssu.ac.ir/article-1-434-fa.html (In Persian)
Isanezhad, O., Agashteh, M., & Alipor, M. (2016). Factor structure, Validity and reliability of Persian form of Measure of Attachment Qualities (MAQ) in married couples: Multidimensional conceptualization of marital attachment. Family Counseling and Psychotherapy, 5(4), 1-16. https://dorl.net/dor/20.1001.1.22516654.1394.5.4.1.3 (In Persian)
Jazini, S., Abdollahi, N., Amanelahi, A., & Aslani, K. (2019). Effectiveness of Attachment Style and Sexual Dysfunction on Marital Commitment and Sexual Beliefs in Married Female Students of Ahvaz City: A Path Analysis. Intern Med Today, 25(1), 29-36. http://imtj.gmu.ac.ir/article-1-2782-fa.html (In Persian)
Johnson, S. M. (2011). The attachment perspective on the bonds of love: A prototype for relationship change. In J. Furrow, B. Bradley & S. Johnson, (Eds.). The emotionally focused casebook: New directions in treating couples. (pp. 31-58). New York: Brunner Routledge.
Karantzas, G. C., McCabe, M. P., Karantzas, K. M., Pizzirani, B., Campbell, H., & Mullins, E. R. (2016). Attachment style and less severe forms of sexual coercion: A systematic review. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 45(5), 1053-1068. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10508-015-0600-7
Khazaei, S., Navabinejad, S., Farzad, V., & Zahrakar, K. (2017). The Relation of Attachment Styles and Relational Aggression: The Mediation of Shame and Guilt. Journal of Developmental Psychology, 14(54), 155-172. https://jip.stb.iau.ir/article_539238.html (In Persian)
Lopez, J. L., Riggs, S. A., Pollard, S. E., & Hook, J. N. (2011). Religious commitment, adult attachment, and marital adjustment in newly married couples. Journal of Family Psychology, 25(2), 301-309. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0022943
Madani, M., & Basharat, M. A. (2019).The Relationship of attachment styles and marital problems. Rooyesh, 8(4), 141-148. http://dorl.net/dor/20.1001.1.2383353.1398.8.4.1.3 (In Persian)
Matlab, Z., & Hamidipour, R. (2017). Relationship among attachment styles and coping strategies with stress by marital adjustment. Journal of Fundamentals of Mental Health, 19(special issue), 251-255. https://doi.org/10.22038/jfmh.2017.8902 (In Persian)
McDermott, R. C., Cheng, H. L., Lopez, F. G., McKelvey, D., & Bateman, L. S. (2017). Dominance orientations and psychological aggression in college student relationships: A test of an attachment theory-guided model. Psychology of Violence, 7(4), 508-520. https://psycnet.apa.org/doi/10.1037/vio0000061
Mikulincer, M., & Shaver, P. R. (2019). Attachment orientations and emotion regulation. Current Opinion in Psychology, 25, 6-10. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.copsyc.2018.02.006
Min, D., Arbing, M. A., Jefferson, R. E., & Bowie, J. U. (2016). A simple DNA handle attachment method for single molecule mechanical manipulation experiments. Protein Science, 25(8), 1535-1544. https://doi.org/10.1002/pro.2952
Mohammadi, K., Samavi, A., & Ghazavi, Z. (2016). The relationship between attachment styles and lifestyle with marital satisfaction. Iranian Red Crescent Medical Journal, 18(4), 238-249. https://doi.org/10.5812%2Fircmj.23839
Mohammadpour, A. (2019). Qualitative research method counter method (The logic and design in qualitative methodology). Vol. 2. Tehran: Sociologists. (In Persian)
Mohr, J. J., Selterman, D., & Fassinger, R. E. (2013). Romantic attachment and relationship functioning in same-sex couples. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 60(1), 72-82. https://psycnet.apa.org/doi/10.1037/a0030994
Muraru, A. A., & Turliuc, M. N. (2012). Family-of-origin, romantic attachment, and marital adjustment: A path analysis model. Procedia-Social and Behavioral Sciences, 33, 90-94. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2012.01.089
Nascimento, B. S., Little, A. C., Monteiro, R. P., Hanel, P. H., & Vione, K. C. (2022). Attachment styles and mate-retention: Exploring the mediating role of relationship satisfaction. Evolutionary Behavioral Sciences, 16(4), 362-370. Link to Publication in Scopus
Niolu, C., Bianciardi, E., Di Lorenzo, G., Nicolai, S., Celi, M., Ribolsi, M., Pietropolli, A., Ticconi, C., Tarantino, U., & Siracusano, A. (2016). Insecure attachment style predicts low bone mineral density in postmenopausal women. A pilot study. Rivista di Psichiatria, 51(4), 143-148. https://doi.org/10.1708/2342.25118
Novak, J. R., Sandberg, J. G., & Davis, S. Y. (2017). The role of attachment behaviors in the link between relationship satisfaction and depression in clinical couples: Implications for clinical practice. Journal of Marital and Family Therapy, 43(2), 352-363. https://doi.org/10.1111/jmft.12201
Oka, M., Brown, C. C., & Miller, R. B. (2016). Attachment and relational aggression: Power as a mediating variable. The American Journal of Family Therapy, 44(1), 24-35. https://doi.org/10.1080/01926187.2015.1105716
Ozmen, O., & Atik, G. (2010). Attachment styles and marital adjustment of Turkish married individuals. Procedia Social and Behavioral Science, 5, 367-371. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2010.07.106
Purcell-Lévesque, C., Brassard, A., Carranza-Mamane, B., & Péloquin, K. (2019). Attachment and sexual functioning in women and men seeking fertility treatment. Journal of Psychosomatic Obstetrics & Gynecology, 40(3), 202-210. https://doi.org/10.1080/0167482x.2018.1471462
Quinlan, E., Deane, F. P., Crowe, T., & Caputi, P. (2018). Do attachment anxiety and hostility mediate the relationship between experiential avoidance and interpersonal problems in mental health carers? Journal of Contextual Behavioral Science, 7, 63-71. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jcbs.2018.01.003
Rajabi, G. R., Mousavianejad, Kh., & Taghipour, M. (2014). Relationships Attachment Styles and Emotional Intelligence with Marital Satisfaction and Marital Conflict in Married Female Teachers. Biannual Journal of Applied Counseling, 4(1), 49-66. https://jac.scu.ac.ir/article_12562.html (In Persian)
Randall, A. K., & Butler, E. A. (2013). Attachment and emotion transmission within romantic relationships: Merging intrapersonal and interpersonal perspectives. Journal of Relationships Research, 4, e10. https://doi.org/10.1017/jrr.2013.10
Sadoughi, M. (2008). Criteria of Evaluating Qualitative Research. Methodology of Social Sciences and Humanities, 14(56), 55-72. https://method.rihu.ac.ir/article_428.html (In Persian)
Sandberg, J. G., Bradford, A. B., & Brown, A. P. (2017). Differentiating between attachment styles and behaviors and their association with marital quality. Family Process, 56(2), 518-531. https://doi.org/10.1111/famp.12186
Santona, A., De Cesare, P., Tognasso, G., De Franceschi, M., & Sciandra, A. (2019). The mediating role of romantic attachment in the relationship between attachment to parents and aggression. Frontiers in Psychology, 10, 1824. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2019.01824
Sedaqatkhah, A., & Behzadipour, S. (2017). Predicting the quality of marital relationships based on communication beliefs, mindfulness and psychological flexibility. Journal of Woman & Society, 8(2), 57-76. https://jzvj.marvdasht.iau.ir/article_2391.html (In Persian)
Sierau, S., & Herzberg, P. H. (2012). Conflict resolution as a dyadic mediator: Considering the partner perspective on conflict resolution. European Journal of Personality, 26(3), 221-232. https://doi.org/10.1002/per.828
Simpson, J, A., & Rholes, W, S. (2019). Adult attachment orientations and well-being during the transitionto parenthood. Current Opinion in Psychology. 25(1), 47–52. https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.copsyc.2018.02.019
Sirin, H. D., & Bayrakci, E. (2020). Investigation of the effect of romantic relationship development program (RIGP) on romantic relationship satisfaction and romantic belief level. Journal of Mersin University Faculty of Education, 16(1), 145-165. https://doi.org/10.17860/mersinefd.592785
Sohrabi, F., & Rasouli, F. (2008). Investigating the relationship between attachment style and extramarital sexual relations among women detained in the center for combating social corruption in Tehran. The Journal of Family Research, 4(2), 143-133. https://jfr.sbu.ac.ir/article_95159.html (In Persian)
Stein, M. B., Siefert, C. J., Stewart, R. V., & Hilsenroth, M. J. (2011). Relationship between the social cognition and object relations scale (SCORS) and attachment style in a clinical sample. Clinical Psychology & Psychotherapy, 18(6), 512-523. https://doi.org/10.1002/cpp.721
Sung, Y., Nam, T. H., & Hwang, M. H. (2020). Attachment style, stressful events, and Internet gaming addiction in Korean university students. Personality and Individual Differences, 154, 109724. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2019.109724
Tavakolizadeh, J., Nejatian, M., & Soori, A. (2015). The effectiveness of communication skills training on marital conflicts and its different aspects in women. Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences, 171(1), 214–221. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2015.01.112
Tougas, C., Péloquin, K., & Mondor, J. (2016). Romantic attachment and perception of partner support to explain psychological aggression perpetrated in couples seeking couples therapy. Couple and Family Psychology: Research and Practice, 5(4), 197-211. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/cfp0000068
Trub, L., & Starks, T. J. (2017). Insecure attachments: Attachment, emotional regulation, sexting and condomless sex among women in relationships. Computers in Human Behavior, 71, 140-147. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2017.01.052
Velotti, P., Beomonte Zobel, S., Rogier, G., & Tambelli, R. (2018). Exploring relationships: A systematic review on intimate partner violence and attachment. Frontiers in Psychology, 9, 1166. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2018.01166
Zhao, G., Ge, Y., Shen, B., Wei, X., & Wang, H. (2017). Emotion analysis for personality inference from EEG signals. IEEE Transactions on Affective Computing, 9(3), 362-371. https://doi.org/10.1109/TAFFC.2017.2786207
 
 
Journal of Applied Psychological Research
Volume 14, Issue 3
2023
Pages 163-184

Files

History

  • Receive Date: 09 November 2021
  • Revise Date: 06 January 2022
  • Accept Date: 22 January 2022
  • First Publish Date: 04 October 2023
  • Publish Date: 04 October 2023

Share

How to cite

Statistics